Undoubtedly, B consists of a double curve closed with a straight line. In Ancient Greek, when B is followed by a Y, the cluster signifies concave objects such as βυθός (bythos), the depth, bottom, especially of the sea or lake, abyss, βύβλος (byblos), Egyptian papyrus, or βυβλία (byblia), papyrus-bed. It also points to the interior of concave volumes as in βύπτειν (byptein), to deep, baptize, βυλλά (bylla), stuff, βυβός (bybos), full, βύσμα (bysma), plug, bung, βυννεῖν (bynein), to hold in the mouth. The smallest verb consisting of by- alone, accompanied only by the generic ending of active verbs, is βύω (byō); it means to stuff. In contrast, the inverse cluster, yb- introduces a notion of convexity or the exterior of objects as in ὑβός (‘ybos), the hump of a camel, humpbacked, ὑββάλλω (‘ybballō), to throw (thrown objects follow a convex trajectory), lay something under clothes, carpets, and the like (implying a protuberance), ὑβρίζω (‘ybrizō), to bray (pound or crush something typically with a pestle and mortar), wax (grow, multiply, increase, augment, heighten, amplify). The latter verb is also used for sounds made by over-fed bulky animals, donkeys, or elephants. The cognates of ὕβρις (‘ybris; hubris) were semantically shifted and over-charged through tragic poetry but do contain the notions of ‘convex behavior’, over and against, excess, overbearing, inappropriate wording, illegitimate matching, fitting together heterogeneous parts; hence hybridization and hybrid (mongrel, bastard).
This
antonymy by inversion of BY/YB, or BU/UB, is preserved in English. The
preposition, adverb, or adjective by (or bye)
is used for standard, straight, expected, regular relations. By primarily
means near or next to. Expressions like X by X indicate a steady progression, one X after another. By also indicates the amount
of change, difference, or discrepancy (space between limits) measured in units
of a specified size. Bye implies a smooth progression from
one point in time to another. BY, transliterated as bu, starts names of
typically convex or concave objects with essential volume or capacity (also
measured in units). Consider, for example, a bucket, bubble,
buckle, budget (wallet, purse, bag),
buffer (a ‘space’ of specific ‘capacity’ between two
objects or states), bugle and bulge[1],
bullet (ball), bull, bulwark,
bulb (a convex storage organ of plants), bump,
bulk, bunker, bunt
(the baggy center of a fishing net or a sail), buoy, burden,
burly, bury, burrow,
burn, and burnish. Or objects (units)
gathered tight together to be seen not as discrete items but as a
continuous ensemble: bulletin, building,
bum (ass; iconically consisting of two massive muscles
tightly joined together), bumble, bunch,
bun, bundle, bungle,
bunk, bureau (organization of items),
burg, burgeon, burger,
bursar, bus, bush,
busy, buzz.
Similarly,
the word but distinguishes between otherwise tightly
joined parts, either as a preposition (apart from, except, outside of); as an adverb
(merely, only, just); conjunction: on the contrary, rather, however, although,
nevertheless, on the other hand); or a noun: an instance or example, a limit or
boundary, butt, which is the end of something, especially the more prominent, thicker, or blunt end as opposed to the sharp end. The noun but
signifies an end, particularly the more prominent or thicker end, not only in English
but also Danish (blunt), French (aim, goal), Serbo-Croatian (thigh, ham, the
upper and larger end of the leg), or Turkish (thigh). In other languages, but
may refer to bulky, voluminous objects such as a thick stick or a cumulus
cloud (Swedish Westrobothnian dialects), to large quantities, much, many
(Romani), or concave objects such as boots or shoes (Polish). The English butt
is downright a large volume unit. The Old English spellings bytt,
byt, or Old French boute (cask),
confirm that the Germanic or Latin-born BU or BOY, perhaps also BO and BOO, are
equivalent to Greek BY.
The inverse
stem, UB (YB) or HUB (analogous to Greek ὑβ; ‘yb), is rarer at the
beginning of English words. The English adjective uber,
and the prefix uber-, meaning super (above, over,
beyond), are cognates of English over and German über-
meaning above. Uber is also the name of an urban
public transport and delivery company. The sememes above, over, and beyond do not refer to the surface of an object but to the space outside the object,
known as the negative space of the object. The negative space is the space not
occupied by an object. Uber may refer to the negative
space of a city, the space between buildings, although I do not think
the company’s founders had this intention.
In Latin, ubi
(where) refers to space in general, outside of objects, and ubique
means everywhere, wherever. The latter is the source of English ubiquitous
and of many variants and derivatives, particularly in Romance
languages. To Hindus, Jews, Christians, and Muslims, God is ubiquitous.
It exists both inside and outside objects. Because ubique means wherever
and ubi means where, it is assumed that -que means
ever, every, or each. But Latin que is a conjunction meaning and. It
sounds the same as its Greek analog καί (kai; /ke/; and). Both que
and kai are thought to derive from a hypothetical PIE *-kʷe (and).
Curiously, the phonemes making up such a basic and straightforward notion as *-kʷe
(and) didn’t make it to Germanic languages and English. These languages used
another hypothetical PIE root, *en, meaning in or, according to other
sources, *h₂énti, facing opposite, near, in front of, before. Could it
be that, initially, Latin que and Greek kai also meant in, add-in, facing opposite, in front of, and that ubi-que did not mean
where-ever but out-in, out-and-in?
We note that ubique has symmetry around its I. Instead, we can split it as ub-i-qu-e (ub-|-qu). The letter q is produced by a 180° rotation of b. In a graphocentric sense, q is the opposite of b. If b represented the ampler end (bulk) of an object, q would be the sharper end; hence the ‘bouba/kiki’ effect (see section Towards a theory of iconic linguistic signs)[2], or the ‘butt/kick’ effect, I would say. This opposition is transcribed into a phonetic opposition. In English, B is pronounced as a voiced bilabial plosive (/b/) articulated at the very front of the mouth. In Greek, it is pronounced as voiced labiodental fricative (/v/) and articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth, i.e., showing the lower lip. Romans preferred to symbolize the sememe lower with a down-arrow (V). In contrast, Q originates as a voiceless uvular plosive (/q/, /k/, /kw/ ) articulated deep inside the mouth by occlusion with the back of the tongue at the uvula. The same rotation results in u passing to the opposite side of the flipped consonant. Thus, ub becomes qu. If I (|) is the outline, the surface of an object, then ub is one side of it (outside; bigger), and qu is the other (inside; smaller). Other rotations, like b|d, q|p, b-p, or q-d, are also possible. The author of ubique (probably a Roman) used a different rotation than the usual Greek YB|BY, as above, but the same principle of creating antonymy by rotating and inverting the graphemes. Essentially, ubiquitous is not something that exists outside and inside at the same time, as God – because such objects do not physically exist in simple minds and are incompatible with Aristotelian logic – but something that is brought from outside (ub→|) to inside (|→qu), something added in. In contrast, a qu→|→ub would be something removed from an object and sent out.
The letter Q
(English cue, /ˈkjuː/), apparently meaning inside (the needle’s eye in
Semitic Phoenician), existed in archaic Greek alphabets as Qoppa (Ϙ) but was
replaced with two letters in the classical alphabet, i.e., a graphically
similar Phi (Φ; /pʰ/) and a phonetically similar Kappa (K; /k/, /kw/).
The Etruscans used Q in conjunction with V (equivalent to Greek Y and English
U) to represent /kʷ/. This usage was copied in Latin with the rest of the Etruscan
alphabet. By replacing the archaic QU (Etruscan QV; /kʷ/) with
Greek K, and U with Greek Y, qu→|→ub becomes k-yb, the
starting stem of κύβος (kybos;
cube), Κυβέλη (Kybelē; Cybele), and Κυβήβη (Kybēbē; thought to be synonymous of Cybele). Following this
quasi-mathematical thought, a cube is an object from which
something has been subtracted, removed. Or an object that has been extracted or sent out itself. It could refer to the remaining bulk of the object, such as
a trimmed stone; or to the part of the object taken out, such as stones
extracted from rock and sent out for use, or to both. The inverse stems, byk,
buc, etc., mean the opposite of trimming as they form words like Greek βύκτης
(byktēs), swelling, blustering, βυκανη (bykanē),
horn, Latin bucca (cheek; especially the lower part that
frequently hangs) or English buck for horned animals.
Another antonymy can be traced in bucolic (byk-),
about herdsmen or peasants who locally crop or trim to produce
the goods that are then transported (kyb-) to the city.
Note that both a cube and a buck
(horn) are pointy (angular) objects. But a cube has its angles (K) at
the outside (UB; surface), whereas a buck has a more prominent in-side
(BU) which finishes in UQ (UCk; Q being the origin of English digraph Ck).
However, this logic requires graphical support to be conceived, elaborated, transmitted and explained. It is hard to believe that the inventors of words such as kybos,
Kybelē, or ubique, experimented with their
tongue, teeth, and lips until they got the right combination of phonemes to
describe a trimmed stone or the import/export (transport) of bulky objects.
Even if they could orally figure it out themselves, they couldn’t expect
listeners to follow their rationale. Language is invented in writing. Perhaps
it is easier to illustrate all that using graphics.
Figure 1. B consists of two parts, UB is the upper or outer part, and BU is the lower, bulkier, or inner part.
Take a
circle representing an object (Fig.
1). B has two semi-circles. It may be perceived as two objects stuck
together or one object broken into two parts. In the left part of the
illustration, we see two objects put together to form an 8-shape, a hamburger. Most
of the time, objects put together are not identical in size and weight. It
feels safer, in abstract terms, if the bulkier and heavier object is placed
first to serve as the base upon which lighter objects can be piled.
Cursive forms of B and b have a more minor upper part than the lower part.
We are all trained to write B with a more minor upper part but never told why.
This convention still holds in many typefaces (ꞵ). The upper part is at most
equal to the lower one. Writing B with a larger upper part just doesn’t feel
right. Common in English and other European languages, one logic is that UB
designates the upper, minor part of B, and BU, the heavier lower part.
Another logic, common in Greek, is that BU represents the convex body of B and UB
represents its negative space, the concave environment of B.
Imagine a single circle (object) with a center of reference (X) as in the right
part of the illustration. By breaking the object along a horizontal line, we
have two semi-circles or arcs, the upper, ⁀ or ∩, and the lower one ‿ or U.
Reading this scheme vertically, from top to bottom as with good old hieroglyphics (see section Anthropomorphism),
we can describe it as ∩XU. Since the symbol ∩ does not exist in Greek or Latin
alphabets, we can replace it with the closest letterform, U, and write UXU
instead. UX would be the part above the center of reference, and XU, the part
below the center. In 1932, the German chemist August Fischer developed a
synthetic resin adhesive to affix any material. He named his glue UHU, pronounced
[uxu], i.e., U|-|U, creating a bond between the two U-parts of the broken
object (semi-circles). The German H is pronounced like the Greek X (Chi). It is
rumored that he chose UHU after Uhu, the German onomatopoeic cuckoo-like
name for the eagle-owl, still found in the Black Forest at those times. I can
see no semantic relationship between an owl and a glue. I think Fisher had a
clearer idea of what he wanted the name to convey. The message was visual, not
phonetic.
Authors may
use the same UXU pattern to designate an outline’s inner and outer parts.
If, for example, M is chosen to represent the complex outline of the human
body, MY can designate the inner part of each of us, and HUM (analog of Greek’ YM), the human body outline seen from outside (for more examples see sections MU, MY, and YM, and UM). When the two semi-circles of our illustration are separated from
one side while kept together from the other, they finish by forming a B. The
upper part is the UB part, and the lower part is the BU. The two semi-circles of
B can also be described by vertical reading as ⁀ and ‿ or, in a horizontal
configuration, as ( and ). ⁀ and ( evoke a sad facial expression or the upper
lip of the mouth. ‿ and ) resemble a smile or the lower lip of the mouth. ) was
the archaic (Phoenician) letter for P. Its Semitic name (Pē) means mouth
If B represented two round things and H was a long bond that joined them, like in UHU, the BH cluster could represent two wheels joined with an axle, and BHBH, two pairs of wheels, each joined with an axle. Because KYB (cub-, cyb-, kyb-, etc.) works out to be a trimmed object sent out, KYBHBH (Kybēbē) could be interpreted as a four-wheel object, a cart used for transporting trimmed products, crops, stones, or any bulky goods. Kybēbē refers to the cart by describing its structure, morphology, and use. In contrast, Kybelē (Cybele) is the more general concept of transporting goods by any means, e.g., using a suitcase, something that can be grasped by the hand, head-carrying, etc. (-elē from aireō, take with the hand, grasp or αἴρω, airō, to take up, raise, lift up, take up and carry or bring, take up and bear, as a burden, mount up, etc.).
This
hypothesis is not as crazy as it may sound. Cybele is almost invariably
depicted as a bulky woman sitting on a cart. We invariably attribute the name
Cybele to the human personage rather than the cart because we are told that
Cybele is a proper name. Proper names are given only to humanoids, gods
(theonyms), or places (toponyms). They do not usually need semantic definition
and are immune to literary criticism. A cart could not have a proper name. The
only distinction between a proper and a common name is the capitalization of
the initial letter. But this distinction was introduced relatively late in history.
Ancient writing did not have lowercase. We cannot presume that KYBELH (CYBELE)
was a proper name from its birth. The mytheme that Cybele was the ‘mother of
the gods’ fits well the notion that the cart, and transport in general, created
the professions of good delivery and distribution, with Cybele meaning
transport and god meaning traded good. This reasoning is not circular. Cybele, as Kybēbē, is not just speculated to be the
trade (cart) merely because it is depicted with a cart. We have started with a
semantic analysis of the various letter clusters using independent Greek,
English, and other European words and concluded that Cybele must mean the transport
of bulky goods. Her depictions just come to validate this conclusion. Now we
know that the opposite direction of reasoning is also valid. When a mythological
persona is always depicted with a symbol, the associated name most probably
refers to the symbol itself, not to the human model that uses it (this is the potential customer like in modern ads). Following this thought, the ‘Great
Mater’ we see transported by a cart is the Great Materials transported by the
cart. The bulky lady is the mother with her basket or cooking pot (drum) who
buys them and cooks them.
For further validation, the Ancient Greek verb κοβαλεύω (kobaleyō; compare Kubeleya; see section The land of Phrygia) means to carry as a porter. Its Modern Greek cognate κουβαλαώ (koybalaō; pronounced /kuvalo/), means to transport from one place to another, usually heavy and bulky objects, to move household items from one house to another. It is also used for whatever is treated, over some time, either as an unbearable burden or as an element of rich experience or great responsibility. By changing kyb into kab (Y>A; V >Λ; U>∩; ↓ > ↑; down > up; charge > lift), we obtain the Ancient Greek καβάλλης (kaballēs) and Latin caballus, both meaning working horse (which pulls the cart). The Modern Greek καβαλάω (kabalaō; compare koybalaō) means to sit on horseback, ride on horseback or another saddlebag, get in a vehicle, mainly on a motorcycle (be transported). In other words, kyb is the container (Y, U) and kav (A) is the charge or the charged.
The verb κυβερνάω
(kybernaō; kyb-ern-naō) means to steer, drive,
guide, govern, act as pilot. This verb starts with kyb, a container for
a neat, orderly transport of bulky but trimmed materials (goods). It continues
with ern- from ἔρνος (ernos), young sprout, shoot (move
rapidly in a particular direction), displaying delicate meandering, and νάω (naō),
to run, flow. Among the derivatives and cognates of κυβερνάω (kybernaō;
to steer, drive, govern, navigate) we have κυβέρνιον (kybernion),
glossed as Latin gubernum, helm, rudder, κυβέρτιον (kybertion),
any hollow vessel, chest, box, presumably for transport, κυβερνήτης (kybernētēs),
steersman, pilot, guide, governor, κυβέρνησις (kybernēsis),
steering, pilotage, metaphorically, government, French gouvernement,
Spanish gobierno, Friulian guviêr, Italian
governo, Maltese gvern, Tagalog gobyerno (all
meaning government) or English cybernetics, and cyberspace.
Therefore, when we look for cognates and the meaning of cyb, from Cybele,
we should not neglect its attested phonetic and spelling corruptions kyb,
cub, kob, koyb, kouv, kov, gob, gub,
gov, guv, gouv, gv, etc., as well as its potential
semantic shifts. The notions of orderly transport, steering, driving, navigating, and governing are intimately linked to the notion of direction. In Arabic, the sememe of direction is rendered by qibla (the
direction towards the Kaaba, the sacred black stone in Mecca; see section Cybele), which is no different from
Apart from
the cart symbol, Cybele is frequently pictured holding a cornucopia, from Latin
cornu (horn) and copiae (abundance), also called the horn of
plenty. This symbolizes abundance and nourishment, commonly a large
horn-shaped container overflowing with produce, flowers, or nuts. These are
some of the goods that the cart can transport and provide. Of course, to carry such heavy stuff, one needs the strength of lions, which always pull the cart of Cybele. But it can also
transport stones and building materials to the growing cities. These are
summarized by the mural crown always worn by the goddess.
Judging from the wealth of ‘king Midas
of Phrygia’ – the intermediate transporter, the middleman, and
distributor of kitchen (Phrygian) goods (victuals and other provisions) who,
according to the mytheme, turned into gold everything he touched – the cost of
transport of goods from their place of production to the place of consumption
must have been very high. And still is so. In his Politics, Aristotle
mentions the legend that Midas died of starvation because of his vain prayer
for the gold touch. He does so in the middle of a passage about trade and fair
wealth making[3].
The myth of Midas is not about kings and their magic powers but about economic
principles and pricing.
Claims
Kybebe = cart, four-wheel vehicle, transport
Midas = middleman, agent, transporter, goods distributor
Cognates
Kybebe: government, cube, qibla
Midas: middleman, intermediate, mediator, medium, mid-, med-
Oppositions: b/p, b/q, ub/bu, ub/qu, cube/buck, U/A, cub/cab, gl/lg
References
Nöldeke, Theodor. 1910. Neue Beiträge zur semitischen Sprachwissenschaft. Strassburg: Trübner.
[1] The antonymy bugle/bulge is created by
the GL/LG inversion (see section Letter
diminution, extension, duplication, and rotation)
[2] The widespread rotation across languages is probably why people predictably respond to the famous experiment as if they
intuitively knew what b [b] and q [k] mean.